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3.2

3.2.1 The Roman pantheon
3.2.2 Venus
3.2.3 Isis
3.2.4 Imperial Cult

3.2.1 The Roman pantheon

Historical background

Roman religion was polytheistic, with immortal gods ruling over all things. The Romans thought of themselves as highly religious and saw their success as evidence of the goodwill of the gods that they honoured. 

Whilst the Roman state had its preferred gods and 'official' rituals, the pantheon of acceptable gods was very flexible. During the expansion of the Roman Empire, the Romans encountered many different gods and cults; none of which were considered to be automatically 'bad' or threatening. When they conquered a place the Romans did not often try to stamp out the local culture and beliefs, preferring to blend cultures together. This made the conquered people easier to rule, as they did not feel their way of life was under threat. 

To achieve this cultural mix the Roman state needed to be tolerant of different religious practices and beliefs. At different times and in different places, Roman beliefs about the characters and functions of the gods could change. It was not a threat to the belief system if someone chooses to worship new gods in addition to old gods, it was only a problem if someone refused to take part in the official 'state' worship that characterised a Roman citizen. This would be viewed as an act of political rebellion, not just religious impiety.

Evidence

Roman religion was greatly influenced by that of the Greeks, and various Greek gods were adopted and adapted by the Romans from about the 6th Century BC onwards due to Greek settlements in Italy. Most were given new Roman names, for example Athena became Minerva, and Zeus became Jupiter, but some were not, for example Apollo. In addition to these gods of Greek origin, as the Empire grew the Romans added more gods from the cultures they conquered, for example those from Eastern cults that they came into contact with from the 2nd Century BC.

The Roman gods had specific names, functions and are depicted as looking very human. Gods like this are called anthropomorphic ('human shaped'). The gods are regularly depicted in Roman art and architecture, often in standardised ways or with items with which they are associated. For example:

  • Jupiter and the eagle
  • Mercury and his staff with two snakes winding around it
  • Mars with armour and weapons
  • Dionysus and grapes or wine

3.2.2 Venus

Historical background

Roman religion was polytheistic, with immortal gods ruling over all things. The Romans thought of themselves as highly religious and saw their success as evidence of the goodwill of the gods that they honoured. 

Whilst the Roman state had its preferred gods and 'official' rituals, the pantheon of acceptable gods was very flexible. During the expansion of the Roman Empire, the Romans encountered many different gods and cults; none of which were considered to be automatically 'bad' or threatening. When they conquered a place the Romans did not often try to stamp out the local culture and beliefs, preferring to blend cultures together. This made the conquered people easier to rule, as they did not feel their way of life was under threat. 

To achieve this cultural mix the Roman state needed to be tolerant of different religious practices and beliefs. At different times and in different places, Roman beliefs about the characters and functions of the gods could change. It was not a threat to the belief system if someone chooses to worship new gods in addition to old gods, it was only a problem if someone refused to take part in the official 'state' worship that characterised a Roman citizen. This would be viewed as an act of political rebellion, not just religious impiety.

Evidence

Roman gods are often given a descriptive word on the end of their name, which denotes the context in which they are being worshipped or the particular function that someone wanted them to perform. Many cities in the ancient world chose a particular god to be their 'patron deity', in Pompeii this was Venusa the Roman equivalent of the Greek goddess Aphrodite, goddess of love. In this context she was called Venus Pompeiana ('Venus of Pompeii); a love goddess, but also worshipped as a goddess of ships and sailing, and as the protector of the town.

Venus Pompeiana had her own temple in Pompeii since at least the 2nd century BC, well before the town became a Roman colony. In pre-Roman days she was worshipped as a nature goddess, Venus Fiscia, who was born from the sea. For this reason she is often depicted lying in a seashell accompanied by dolphins and water nymphs, sometimes she is even shown leaning on the rudder of a ship. Her temple stood looking out to sea, and sailors would seek her protection.

Although Venus was worshipped throughout the Roman Empire, there is no evidence that Venus Pompeiana was worshipped anywhere but in Pompeii. As the patron of Pompeii, people may have believed that she would take special care of them and their town. Her image is all over Pompeii, and she even appears in graffiti apparently supporting a candidate for election!

3.2.3 Isis

Historical background

Roman religion was polytheistic, with immortal gods ruling over all things. The Romans thought of themselves as highly religious and saw their success as evidence of the goodwill of the gods that they honoured. 

Whilst the Roman state had its preferred gods and 'official' rituals, the pantheon of acceptable gods was very flexible. During the expansion of the Roman Empire, the Romans encountered many different gods and cults; none of which were considered to be automatically 'bad' or threatening. When they conquered a place the Romans did not often try to stamp out the local culture and beliefs, preferring to blend cultures together. This made the conquered people easier to rule, as they did not feel their way of life was under threat. 

To achieve this cultural mix the Roman state needed to be tolerant of different religious practices and beliefs. At different times and in different places, Roman beliefs about the characters and functions of the gods could change. It was not a threat to the belief system if someone chooses to worship new gods in addition to old gods, it was only a problem if someone refused to take part in the official 'state' worship that characterised a Roman citizen. This would be viewed as an act of political rebellion, not just religious impiety.

Evidence

Isis was a very popular deity in Pompeii, but she wasn’t from Italy originally. Isis was the queen of the Egyptian gods, and the idea of her as rituals honouring her would have been brought to Pompeii from overseas. Egyptian influence was strong in Pompeii – you may remember the Egyptian elements in the frescoes of the House of the Fruit Orchard – because of the trade routes between the great Egyptian city of Alexandria and the Bay of Naples. 

In Egyptian mythology Osiris (king of the gods) had been torn to pieces by his jealous brother Set. Isis used her healing magic to revive Osiris. This myth was connected to the idea that Isis could offer her worshippers eternal life after their deaths.

The worship of Isis was a mystery cult, which means that all worshippers had to undergo a rite of initiation. Not everyone would choose to do this, and the rituals worshipping Isis had to be kept secret from non-initiates. The cult was open to men, and had professional male priests, but evidence suggests that about a third of worshippers were women. Julia Felix, whose house we looked at for its forum fresco in Topic 1, was probably a worshipper of Isis as her house contains shrines, paintings and statuettes dedicated to the goddess.

The temple of Isis in Pompeii held two daily services, and it appears to have been open all day unlike other temples. The frescoes from the temples in Pompeii and Herculaneum show the ceremonies in detail and give us good evidence about how people worshipped Isis. We can see in the pictures people waving sistra (singular sistrum), an item a bit like a tambourine, during their worship. Archaeologists have found real examples of these. There were two major festivals to Isis:

• The Navigation of Isis – where a procession carried a small boat to the seashore and prayed for the protection of sailors

• The Isia – the commemoration of the discovery of Osiris' body, it is believed this is when initiations took place

There is evidence to suggest that many Romans, including the Emperors, did not like the worship of Isis. Apparently they thought that this foreign cult was a threat to Roman values. It seems to have remained a very important cult in Pompeii however. The Temple of Isis in Pompeii was badly damaged by an earthquake. An inscription found above the entrance tells us it was rebuilt with money donated by Numerius Popidius Celsinus. In thanks, he was made a member of the town council, despite the fact that he was only 6 years old at the time!

3.2.4 Imperial Cult

Historical background

Roman religion was polytheistic, with immortal gods ruling over all things. The Romans thought of themselves as highly religious and saw their success as evidence of the goodwill of the gods that they honoured. 

Whilst the Roman state had its preferred gods and 'official' rituals, the pantheon of acceptable gods was very flexible. During the expansion of the Roman Empire, the Romans encountered many different gods and cults; none of which were considered to be automatically 'bad' or threatening. When they conquered a place the Romans did not often try to stamp out the local culture and beliefs, preferring to blend cultures together. This made the conquered people easier to rule, as they did not feel their way of life was under threat. 

To achieve this cultural mix the Roman state needed to be tolerant of different religious practices and beliefs. At different times and in different places, Roman beliefs about the characters and functions of the gods could change. It was not a threat to the belief system if someone chooses to worship new gods in addition to old gods, it was only a problem if someone refused to take part in the official 'state' worship that characterised a Roman citizen. This would be viewed as an act of political rebellion, not just religious impiety.

Evidence

Key to plan of forum: green – shops; orange – temples; red – political/administrative

Many towns throughout the Roman Empire had priests and temples dedicated to worshipping the Emperor and his family. This is known as the Imperial Cult. The worship of the Emperor's genius (spirit) was first introduced at the time of the first Emperor, Augustus. A new group of part-time priests (the Augustales) were established to supervise the cult, it was very common for these to be freedmen. This could be because freedmen were not allowed to have jobs in politics, and this was one way that they could be involved in public life. There was a group of these Augustales in Pompeii.

Close to the temple of the Capitoline Triad (1) were several buildings associated with imperial cult. The temple of the public Lares (2) became linked with the Emperor, and in the temple to them was a statue of the genius of Augustus as well as figures of the lares themselves. Next to this was a temple to the Imperial Cult (3), also called the Temple of Vespasian (one of the Emperors). An inscription from the temple says: 'Marcus Tullius, son of Marcus, duumvir… built the temple… on his own land and at his own expense'. It contained a statue of Fortuna Augusta (goddess of fortune, here specifically in relation to the Emperor himself) and the imperial family. 

The large buildling next to this temple was built by the important, wealthy priestess of the Imperial Cult, Eumachia. It is not clear what it was for but Eumachia dedicated it to Concordia Augusta (the goddess of social harmony associated with the Emperor). A statue of Eumachia in the robes and veil of a priestess was found in this building, dedicated to her by the city's fullers (laundrymen or wool workers). 

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